A Gallery of Conductors — Toscanini, Furtwängler, Karajan, Bernstein, Ozawa Seiji

The Profession of “the Conductor”

The previous article on 20th-century music largely covered the composer lineage. This article shifts focus to the central figure of performance — the conductor.

The conductor (German Dirigent) is a profession born in the 19th century:

• Baroque and Classical — Composers led while playing (from the harpsichord continuo, from the piano, from the violin)
• Early 19th century — Mendelssohn, Wagner, and Berlioz as prototypes of “the independent baton-waving conductor”
• Late 19th century — Hans von Bülow, Hans Richter, and Gustav Mahler established the professional conductor
• 20th century — From Toscanini onward, the central figure of music

The passing of the leading role “from composer → performer → interpreter” is one of the great themes of 20th-century music history.

The Special Profession of the Conductor

The conductor differs from other musicians:

• Produces no sound himself — controls a hundred players
• Political skill — relations with orchestra members, staff, and sponsors
• Managerial skill — running large organizations
• A striking tendency to long life — Toscanini 90, Karajan 81, Bernstein 72, Ozawa 88
• International fame and travel

“The CEO of music” — the late-20th-century characterization.

Arturo Toscanini — “Fidelity to the Score”

Arturo Toscanini (1867–1957) was born in Parma, Italy. A bridge between the 19th and 20th centuries; “the father of modern conducting”:

Life

• 25 March 1867 — Born in Parma
• 30 June 1886 — At 19, in Rio de Janeiro, he suddenly conducted Aida and made his world debut (the conductor resigned in illness, and Toscanini, a cellist in the orchestra, stepped in from memory)
• 1898–1908 — Music Director of La Scala in Milan
• 1908–1915 — Music Director of the Metropolitan Opera (New York)
• 1926–1936 — Music Director of the New York Philharmonic
• 1937–1954 — Music Director of the NBC Symphony Orchestra (New York, for radio broadcasts)
• 16 January 1957 — Dies in New York at 89

“Strict Fidelity to the Score”

Toscanini reacted against the free “interpretation” of 19th-century Romanticism:

“Play what is written in the score, as written.”

• Metronomic tempi
• Each part sharply articulated
• Restrained emotional exaggeration
• Stern rehearsals, sometimes with verbal abuse and torn-up scores

The origin of “new objectivism” in 20th-century performance. In the earlier piano series he appears as the father-in-law of Horowitz.

Anti-fascist

As an Italian, Toscanini resisted Mussolini (in power from 1922):

• Refused to conduct Giovinezza (the fascist anthem)
• 14 May 1931 — Slapped by fascists in Bologna
• 1938 — Resigned from the Bayreuth Festival (Wagnerian) in protest against Nazi Germany
• 1939 — Emigrated to the US and did not return to Italy (until 1946)

A symbol of the 20th-century controversy between “the separation of music and politics” vs “the political responsibility of music.” As a musician, he stayed anti-fascist to the end.

The NBC Symphony and Radio

In 1937 NBC (the broadcaster) founded a permanent orchestra with Toscanini as music director. The world’s first orchestra for radio:

• Weekly broadcasts to millions of listeners
• The origin of 20th-century “mass-media music”
• A large body of recordings remains

“The 20th century is the age when music reached the world through mass media” — Toscanini was its pioneer.

Wilhelm Furtwängler — “Deep Germanic Interpretation”

Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886–1954) was born in Berlin. The polar opposite of Toscanini, a representative of “subjective, deep interpretation.”

Life

• 25 January 1886 — Born in Berlin (his father was an archaeologist)
• 1922–1945 and 1952–1954 — Principal Conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic
• 1933 — the Nazi regime — chose to remain in Germany
• 1938 — The “Hindemith affair” (defended the modern composer, clashing with the Nazis)
• 1945–1946 — Briefly banned in denazification, then reinstated
• 30 November 1954 — Dies in Sankt Moritz, Switzerland, at 68

“Deep Germanic Interpretation”

Furtwängler pursued the “spirituality” of music:

• Flexible tempi, massive rubato
• Waves of feeling, overwhelming climaxes
• Deep breathing, mystical stillness
• “Beethoven is a mystery, not mathematics”

The opposite musical outlook to Toscanini’s. The 20th-century debate of “objective vs subjective.”

The Choice Under the Nazis

Furtwängler stayed in Germany:

• “I am not a politician; I am a musician”
• He quietly helped many Jewish musicians
• He also conducted in front of Hitler
• Confrontations with Goebbels (asserting musical independence)

He was acquitted by the postwar denazification tribunal, but was internationally criticised. Thomas Mann and other anti-Nazi exiles blamed him for having stayed.

He embodied the difficult problem of “musical greatness and political responsibility.”

Great Recordings

• Beethoven’s Ninth (1942, 1951, 1954) — three legendary recordings
• The 1951 Bayreuth Ninth, at the postwar reopening of the festival — a summit of the 20th century
• Wagner music dramas, Brahms symphonies, Schubert’s “Great” symphony

Herbert von Karajan — “The Emperor of Music”

Herbert von Karajan (1908–1989) was born in Salzburg, Austria. The greatest conductor of the late 20th century, at the centre of the Berlin Philharmonic (35 years), the Vienna State Opera, and the Salzburg Festival.

Life

• 5 April 1908 — Born in Salzburg (into a physician’s family)
• 1929, at 21 — Debut as a professional conductor at the Ulm Municipal Theatre
• 1935 — Music Director of the Aachen Municipal Theatre; at 26, the youngest in Germany (registered as a Nazi Party member)
• April 1938 — Berlin debut, “the Karajan miracle” (Das Wunder Karajan)
• 1945–1948 — Stopped performing during denazification
• 1948 — Returns
• 1955–1989 — Principal Conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic for life
• 1957–1964 — Director of the Vienna State Opera
• 1956–1989 — Artistic Director of the Salzburg Festival
• 16 July 1989 — Dies near Salzburg at 81

The Nazi-Party Question

In April 1933, at 25, Karajan joined the Austrian Nazi Party, and in 1935 also joined the German Nazi Party. Widely regarded as a career move.

He stopped performing for three years during denazification, then returned. He did not speak about it in his life; the controversy continues today.

“Music and politics” — the great 20th-century problem, and the difference between Furtwängler’s and Karajan’s positions.

Perfectionism and Mass Recording

Karajan pursued the perfect realization of music:

• Meticulous preparation of rehearsals and recordings
• The polished sound, the “Berlin Philharmonic sound”
• Refinement and beauty ahead of emotion
• A vast recording legacy — over 900 titles, the most in the world

“Preserving music by recording” was his 20th-century passion at its highest pitch. Cycles recorded for Deutsche Grammophon and EMI reached the whole world.

The Salzburg Festival

For 33 years, 1956–1989, he was Artistic Director of the Salzburg Festival, developing it into the world’s premier music festival:

• Mozart operas, its cornerstone
• Regular appearances by the Berlin Philharmonic and the Vienna Philharmonic
• The world’s greatest conductors, singers, and players

“The emperor of music” and his kingdom. Today’s Salzburg Festival is Karajan’s legacy.

“After Karajan”

After his death in 1989, the Berlin Philharmonic passed through:

• 1989–2002 — Claudio Abbado (democratic, warm)
• 2002–2018 — Simon Rattle (UK, introduced contemporary music)
• 2018– — Kirill Petrenko (Russia, the future)

A major shift from “the autocratic Karajan” to “the democratic Abbado and after.”

Leonard Bernstein — “Educator, Star”

Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990) was born in Massachusetts, USA, of Jewish descent. Mentioned as a composer in the previous article on 20th-century music; here he appears as a conductor.

Life

• 25 August 1918 — Born
• 14 November 1943 — At 25, substitutes on a day’s notice for Bruno Walter at the New York Philharmonic and becomes a star overnight
• 1958–1969 — Music Director of the New York Philharmonic, the first American to head a great orchestra
• 1969–1990 — Worldwide activity as a guest conductor
• 14 October 1990 — Dies of lung cancer in New York at 72

The “Young People’s Concerts”

From 1958 to 1972, 53 broadcasts on CBS television, of a children’s concert programme:

• Explained classical music to children
• Reached the world
• “The greatest contribution to music education”

A 20th-century equivalent of Euler’s Letters to a German Princess and Tao’s blog in the earlier piano series — a great work of public understanding of knowledge.

The Man Behind the Mahler Revival

Bernstein was central to the worldwide revival of Mahler (from the earlier article on the late Romantic):

• Recorded the complete Mahler symphonies twice (New York Philharmonic, Vienna Philharmonic)
• Re-emphasised Mahler’s “Jewishness”
• Sparked the Mahler boom of the 1960s

Carlos Kleiber — “The Phantom Perfectionist”

Carlos Kleiber (1930–2004) — Germany → Argentina → Germany. A perfectionist with extremely few performances:

• Only a handful of concerts each year
• A small body of recordings — Beethoven’s Fifth, Seventh, Brahms’s Fourth, Wagner’s Tristan, Schubert’s Unfinished, Verdi’s La traviata, the 1989 and 1992 New Year’s Concerts
• His father was the great conductor Erich Kleiber (1890–1956)
• Frequent cancellations
• Refusals to rehearse

The few performances he gave are rated among the greatest in the world. “The phantom master.” Died in Slovenia in 2004.

Claudio Abbado (1933–2014)

Born in Milan. After Karajan, at the Berlin Philharmonic (1989–2002), La Scala, the Vienna State Opera, and the Lucerne Festival:

• A democratic method — in dialogue with the players
• Training young musicians — the Gustav Mahler Youth Orchestra (1986) and the Lucerne Festival Orchestra
• A 20-year battle with stomach cancer; he continued to conduct
• 20 January 2014 — Dies in Bologna at 80

Simon Rattle (1955–)

Born in Liverpool, UK. At the Berlin Philharmonic (2002–2018), the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra:

• Active advocacy of contemporary music (Messiaen, Boulez, Ligeti, Adès)
• Education — the “Rhythm Is It!” project
• Sir Simon Rattle — knighted

Kirill Petrenko (1972–)

Born in Omsk, Russia, raised in Austria. Current Principal Conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic (from 2019) and of the Bavarian State Opera. Media-shy, no social media, “speaks only through the music” — the contemporary conductor.

Other Major 20th-Century Conductors

• Otto Klemperer (1885–1973) — Germany → US; slow tempi, profundity
• Bruno Walter (1876–1962) — a pupil of Mahler, Germany → US
• George Szell (1897–1970) — perfectionist Cleveland Orchestra
• Karl Böhm (1894–1981) — Austria; Mozart, R. Strauss
• Rafael Kubelík (1914–1996) — Czechia → Germany; Mahler, Dvořák
• Georg Solti (1912–1997) — Hungary → UK; Chicago Symphony; 31 Grammys
• Lorin Maazel (1930–2014) — US, complete cycles
• Zubin Mehta (1936–) — India; NY Philharmonic, Israel Philharmonic
• Riccardo Muti (1941–) — Italy; La Scala, Chicago Symphony
• Daniel Barenboim (1942–) — Argentina → Germany; pianist-conductor; Berlin State Opera
• Valery Gergiev (1953–) — Russia; Mariinsky; expelled from the West after the 2022 invasion of Ukraine

Ozawa Seiji — A Musical Hero of Japan

Ozawa Seiji (1935–2024) was born in Shenyang, China (Manchuria) and raised in Japan. A world-famous conductor and a cultural symbol of postwar Japan.

Life

• 1 September 1935 — Born in Manchuria (his father a dentist)
• 1951 — At Toho Girls’ High School (which had become co-ed), studies conducting with Saitō Hideo
• 1959 — Alone, crosses to Europe on a scooter, lives in Paris
• September 1959 — Wins the Besançon International Conducting Competition at 24
• 1960 — Wins the Karajan Competition and becomes Karajan’s pupil
• 1961–1965 — Assistant conductor of the New York Philharmonic under Bernstein
• 1965–1970 — Music Director of the Toronto Symphony
• 1970–1976 — Music Director of the San Francisco Symphony
• 1973–2002 — Music Director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra for 29 years, the longest tenure of any US orchestra
• 1984 — Founds the Saito Kinen Orchestra (from Saitō Hideo’s students)
• 1992 — Founds the Saito Kinen Festival Matsumoto (renamed the Seiji Ozawa Matsumoto Festival in 2015)
• 2002–2010 — Music Director of the Vienna State Opera, the first Japanese to hold the post
• c. 2010 — Oesophageal cancer; scales back
• 6 February 2024 — Dies in Tokyo of heart failure at 88

“Three Contributions of Ozawa Seiji”

1. Pioneer of the Japanese conductor of global stature — opened the way for Asian conductors at the top level
2. 29 years at Boston — established the “Japanese music director” of an American orchestra
3. Saito Kinen — trained young Japanese musicians and built a festival of world stature

The Seiji Ozawa Matsumoto Festival

Held every August–September in Matsumoto, Nagano. The world’s greatest players gather for Saito Kinen Orchestra performances of opera, symphonies, and chamber music. Still ongoing (continued by Ozawa’s nephew Ōno Kazushi and others).

Saitō Hideo (1902–1974) — “Ozawa’s Teacher”

Cellist and conductor. Famous internationally for the Saito Method of conducting. Founded the Toho Gakuen Music School (later Toho Gakuen College), training the major Japanese conductors Akiyama Kazuyoshi, Yamamoto Naozumi, Otaka Tadaaki, and Ozawa Seiji.

Japanese Conductors — the 21st Century

• Sado Yutaka (1961–) — Bernstein’s pupil; Hyōgo Performing Arts Center Orchestra
• Yamada Kazuki (1979–) — Japan Philharmonic, Berlin Radio Symphony
• Ōno Kazushi (1960–) — TMSO, Opéra de Lyon, Barcelona Symphony
• Suzuki Hidemi and Suzuki Masaaki — Bach Collegium Japan, Baroque
• Ueoka Toshiyuki, Genda Shigeo, Ōue Eiji, Inoue Michiyoshi

“A Hundred Years of the Conductor” — Summary

The 20th-century conductor was the central figure of music:

• First half (1900–1960) — Toscanini and Furtwängler, “the opposition of interpretations”
• Middle (1955–1990) — Karajan and Bernstein, “emperors of the record age”
• Second half (1990–2020) — Abbado and Rattle, “democratic conducting”
• Now (2020–) — Petrenko and Nézet-Séguin, “quiet conducting”

The 20th-century shift “from autocrats to democratic leaders.”

21st-Century Rising Conductors

• Gustavo Dudamel (1981–) — Venezuela; Los Angeles Philharmonic, the Metropolitan
• Yannick Nézet-Séguin (1975–) — Canada; the Metropolitan, the Philadelphia Orchestra
• Andris Nelsons (1978–) — Latvia; Boston Symphony, Leipzig Gewandhaus
• Klaus Mäkelä (1996–) — Finland; Oslo Philharmonic, Orchestre de Paris; Concertgebouw from 2027
• Sugiyama Yōichi (1971–), Yamada Kazuki (1979–) — Japan

“From the age of great masters to the age of diversity.”

Modern Impact

• The survival of orchestras and opera houses — the conductor is also central to the finances
• Recording and streaming — the mass-recording legacy from Karajan onward
• Music education — Bernstein’s Young People’s Concerts, and today’s YouTube explainers
• Internationalization — from the late 20th century, young talent from every country reaches the top

From This Article to the Next

We have traced a hundred years of the conductor. The next article — the final article of the classical-music series — turns to the music of the 21st century and the world’s musical institutions. Contemporary composers (Adams, Adès, Saariaho, Fujikura Dai, Ichiyanagi Toshi, Hosokawa Toshio); the state of the world’s orchestras, opera houses, and music education; the future of music — we will sum up the 1500-year lineage and look ahead at classical music in the 21st century.