Overview of Ukiyo-e Genres — Bijin-ga, Yakusha-e, Musha-e, Meisho-e, Kachō-ga, Shunga, Yōkai-e

The Seven Great Genres of Ukiyo-e

Scholars organize the subjects of 400 years of ukiyo-e into seven great genres:

Genre	Origin	Representative painters	Modern correspondence
1. Bijin-ga	Late 17th c.	Utamaro, Harunobu, Kiyonaga	Fashion magazines, idol photos
2. Yakusha-e	Late 17th c.	Torii school, Sharaku, Kunisada	Movie posters, bromides
3. Musha-e	Late 18th c.	Kuniyoshi, Yoshitoshi	Manga, game characters
4. Meisho-e (landscape)	Early 19th c.	Hokusai, Hiroshige	Tourism posters, postcards
5. Kachō-ga (flower-bird)	18th c.	Hokusai, Hiroshige	Calendars, painting works
6. Shunga (=makurae)	17th c.	Utamaro, Hokusai	(Modern sexual expression in general)
7. Yōkai-e	18th c.	Kuniyoshi, Yoshitoshi, Kyōsai	Horror manga, anime

Adding subdivided genres of caricature, toy prints, warrior prints, and 20th-century shin-hanga and sōsaku-hanga, ukiyo-e subjects are extremely diverse.

1. Bijin-ga

Definition

Bijin-ga = ukiyo-e with women (courtesans, town girls, teahouse women) as subject. The most core genre of ukiyo-e.

History

• Late 17th c.: Established by Hishikawa Moronobu’s Mikaeri Bijin-zu
• 1710s-1740s: Courtesan pictures by the Torii school and the Kaigetsudō school
• 1760s-1770s: Girlish lyrical beauties by Suzuki Harunobu
• 1780s: Eight-headed tall beauties by Torii Kiyonaga
• 1790s: Ōkubi-e by Kitagawa Utamaro — the peak of bijin-ga
• 1830s-1860s: Mass production by Utagawa Kunisada
• 1900s-1920s: Shin-hanga beauties by Hashiguchi Goyō and Itō Shinsui

Representative Works

• Utamaro’s Woman Blowing a Popping Toy (1792) — a young woman’s moment
• Utamaro’s Three Beauties of the Present Day (1793) — the real three women
• Harunobu’s Sharing an Umbrella in the Snow (1765) — a man and woman in love
• Kiyonaga’s Minami Jūni Kō (1784) — group beauties
• Goyō’s Kami Sukeru Onna (1920) — a Taishō modern

Today

• Distant ancestor of fashion magazines, idol photographs, anime bishōjo
• Direct lineage of modern Japanese-style bijin-ga (Kaburaki Kiyokata, Itō Shinsui → present)

2. Yakusha-e (Actor Prints)

Definition

Yakusha-e = ukiyo-e depicting the likeness, program, and mie pose of kabuki actors. The Edo version of modern bromides and movie posters.

History

• Late 17th c.: Aragoto actor prints of the Torii school
• 1770s-1790s: Katsukawa Shunshō’s similitude actor prints
• 1794-95: The shock of Tōshūsai Sharaku’s ōkubi-e
• 1800-1860s: Stage pictures by Utagawa Kunisada and Kuniyoshi
• After Meiji: Replaced by newspaper illustration and photograph

Three Types

• Aragoto pictures — kumadori, a single moment of mie pose
• Wagoto pictures — scenes of romantic drama
• Tsuji-banzuke — theater flyers

Representative Works

• Sharaku’s Ōtani Oniji as Edobei (1794) — the chill of the villain
• Kunisada’s Ōshibai Gakuya Raku — documentation of backstage
• Torii Kiyonobu’s Danjūrō as Shibaraku — the mold of aragoto

Today

• Kabuki-za signboards and pamphlets (still by the Torii school)
• Actor posters for movies and dramas
• Anime character goods

3. Musha-e (Warrior Prints)

Definition

Musha-e = ukiyo-e depicting the combat and heroic scenes of generals and warriors. Chinese Suikoden and Japanese Taiheiki are subjects.

History

• 17th-18th c.: Existed as parts of illustrated books
• 1827: Made an independent genre by Utagawa Kuniyoshi’s Tsūzoku Suikoden Gōketsu Hyakuhachi-nin no Hitori
• 1830s-1860s: The golden age of warrior prints by Kuniyoshi, Kunisada, and Yoshitoshi
• Late Edo: Warrior prints reflecting social unease flood the market
• Early Meiji: Shift to historical painting, such as Yoshitoshi’s Dai Nihon Meishō Kagami (1878-82)

Subjects

• Japanese generals — Minamoto no Yoshitsune, Takeda Shingen, Kusunoki Masashige, Sanada Yukimura
• Chinese heroes — the 108 of the Suikoden, the heroes of the Three Kingdoms
• Combat scenes — Tomoe Gozen, Benkei, Musashibō

Representative Works

• Kuniyoshi’s Tsūzoku Suikoden series (1827) — Chinese heroes
• Kuniyoshi’s Honchō Musha Kagami — Japanese generals
• Yoshitoshi’s Dai Nihon Meishō Kagami (1878) — the peak of Meiji warrior prints

Today

• Distant ancestor of manga (Vagabond, Rurouni Kenshin, Kingdom, etc.)
• Character design of games (Sengoku BASARA, Nobunaga’s Ambition)
• Combat expression in anime

4. Meisho-e (Landscape Painting)

Definition

Meisho-e = ukiyo-e depicting real landscapes and famous places. The Edo version of modern tourist posters and postcards.

History

• 17th-18th c.: Parts of illustrated books
• 1831: Landscape painting becomes an independent genre with Katsushika Hokusai’s Fugaku Sanjūrokkei
• 1833: The highway series is established with Utagawa Hiroshige’s Tōkaidō Gojūsan-tsugi
• 1856-58: Hiroshige’s Meisho Edo Hyakkei — total view of the famous places of Edo
• After Meiji: Replaced by Western painting and photograph
• 20th c.: Revived by Kawase Hasui’s shin-hanga

Subjects

• Mount Fuji — the center for Hokusai and Hiroshige
• The Tōkaidō — the highway between Edo and Kyoto
• Famous places of Edo — Sumida River, Ryōgoku, Asakusa
• Provincial famous places — Kyoto, Osaka, Nara

Representative Works

• Hokusai’s Great Wave off Kanagawa — the best-known Japanese art in the world
• Hiroshige’s Kanbara (Yoru no Yuki) — the peak of lyricism
• Hiroshige’s Ōhashi Atake no Yūdachi — copied by Van Gogh
• Hasui’s Shiba Zōjō-ji — a Shōwa famous-place picture

Today

• Tourism posters (JR Tōkai CMs, etc.)
• Postcards and calendars
• Subjects for stamps and banknotes

5. Kachō-ga (Flower-and-Bird Painting)

Definition

Kachō-ga = ukiyo-e with flowers, birds, insects, and fish as subject. Inherits the Chinese-painting tradition, but developed uniquely in ukiyo-e.

History

• 17th-18th c.: Imitation of Chinese flower-and-bird painting
• 1830s: Kachō-like elements in Hokusai’s series such as Shokoku Taki Meguri and Shokoku Meikyō Kiran
• 1830s-40s: Hiroshige’s kachō-ga series (small format, fan-shape)
• After Meiji: Replaced by Western natural-history painting, but remains as a subject of prints

Subjects

• Flowers of the four seasons — cherry, plum, wisteria, chrysanthemum, peony
• Birds — crane, wild goose, sparrow, heron, hawk
• Insects — cicada, firefly, butterfly
• Fish — carp, sweetfish, sea bream

Representative Works

• The plant and animal figures in Hokusai’s Hokusai Manga
• Hiroshige’s Kachō Gajō — cycle of flowers and birds
• Utamaro’s Ehon Mushi Erami (1788) — the poetry of insects

Today

• Calendars and painting works
• Design elements in Japanese restaurants and wagashi shops
• Patterns of kimono and obi

6. Shunga (Erotic Pictures = Makura-e)

Definition

Shunga = ukiyo-e with sexual love as subject. Also called makura-e (pillow pictures) or warai-e (laughing pictures).

History

• 17th c.: Exists from the era of Hishikawa Moronobu
• 18th-19th c.: Most ukiyo-e painters produced shunga (Utamaro, Hokusai, Hiroshige, and Kuniyoshi too)
• Officially prohibited by shogunate edicts (1722, 1841, 1876) but effectively circulated
• 1930s: Completely prohibited in the Shōwa era
• Postwar: Revived as an object of scholarly research

Features

• Concrete depiction of sexual acts
• Exaggerated depiction of genitals
• Text (dialogue, monologue) beside the picture
• More luxurious multicolor printing than ordinary nishiki-e

Representative Works

• Utamaro’s Utamakura (1788) — a masterpiece of the 12-picture shunga album
• Hokusai’s Kinoe no Komatsu (1814) — commonly called “the octopus and the diver,” globally famous
• Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi also produced many

Why Most Painters Drew It

• Income was good — several times the price of ordinary nishiki-e
• Showcase of technique — chance for precise depiction
• Anonymity — often used another name

Today

• The British Museum’s 2013 “Shunga Exhibition” — global scholarly re-evaluation
• 2015-16 “Shunga Exhibition” in Japan (Tokyo, Kyoto) — also public in Japan
• Studied as the historical ancestor of modern sexual expression in general

7. Yōkai-e (Yōkai Pictures)

Definition

Yōkai-e = ukiyo-e with yōkai, ghosts, and the weird as subject. Connected to Edo’s ghost-story culture.

History

• 17th-18th c.: Parts of illustrated books (Toriyama Sekien’s Gazu Hyakki Yakō, etc.)
• 1830s-40s: Made full-fledged by Kuniyoshi’s Sōma no Furudairi
• 1850s-60s: Rapid growth reflecting the social unease of the late Edo
• 1889-92: Yoshitoshi’s Shinkei Sanjūrokkaisen — the peak of yōkai pictures
• After Meiji: Kawanabe Kyōsai’s yōkai pictures

Subjects

• Yōkai — kappa, oni, bakeneko, rokurokubi
• Ghosts — Oiwa, Okiku, Kasane
• The weird — kamikakushi (spiriting away), yao-bikuni

Representative Works

• Kuniyoshi’s Sōma no Furudairi (1845) — a giant three-sheet skeleton
• Yoshitoshi’s Suzakumon no Tsuki — a Heian yōkai tale
• Yoshitoshi’s Shinkei Sanjūrokkaisen — 36 pictures of yōkai
• Kyōsai’s Kyōsai Hyakki Gadan — Meiji-era yōkai pictures

Today

• Mizuki Shigeru’s Gegege no Kitarō — direct heir of Edo yōkai pictures
• The demons of Demon Slayer, the curses of Jujutsu Kaisen
• Yōkai figures in horror films (Ring, Grudge)
• Characters like Yōkai Watch

Subdivided Genres

In addition to the above 7 great genres, Edo-Meiji ukiyo-e had many subdivided genres:

Giga (Caricature)

• Kuniyoshi’s Mikake wa Kowai ga Tondaii Hito da, etc.
• Anthropomorphized parodies of animals and people
• Prototype of modern manga

Omocha-e (Toy Pictures)

• Prints for children
• Origami, paper cuttings, sugoroku
• Representative work of Utagawa Yoshifuji

Yokohama-e

• Late-Edo to early-Meiji open-port and foreigners
• Representative work of Utagawa Yoshitora
• Record of the first Japanese visualization of “foreign countries”

Shini-e (Death Pictures)

• Memorial prints of actors
• Published when a star died
• Prototype of modern memorial photo collections

Kaika-e (Enlightenment Pictures)

• Depict early Meiji’s civilization and enlightenment
• The appearance of railroads, Western buildings, Western clothing
• Edo painters made Meiji-era prints of Meiji scenery

Sumō-e (Sumo Pictures)

• Likenesses of sumo wrestlers
• Katsukawa Shunshō, Sharaku, and Kunisada produced them
• Prototype of modern sumo pamphlets

Temporal Distribution of Genres

Lining up the peak periods of each genre within the 400 years of ukiyo-e:

Period	Mainstream Genre
Late 17th c.	Birth of bijin-ga and yakusha-e
Early 18th c.	Yakusha-e and bijin-ga (beni-e)
Late 18th c.	Bijin-ga (Harunobu, Kiyonaga, Utamaro)
1790s	Peak of bijin-ga and yakusha-e (Utamaro, Sharaku)
1800s-1820s	Bijin-ga and yakusha-e (Kunisada’s mass production)
1830s	Birth of landscape painting (Hokusai, Hiroshige)
1840-60s	Peak of warrior prints and yōkai pictures (Kuniyoshi, Yoshitoshi)
1870-90s	Historical painting and newspaper illustration (Yoshitoshi)
1910-50s	Revival of shin-hanga (Hasui, Goyō)
1940-70s	Sōsaku-hanga (Munakata) goes to the world

Landscape painting and yōkai pictures rise in the late Edo, while bijin-ga and yakusha-e were mainstream in the late 18th to early 19th century. This corresponds to Edo-Meiji social change.

Painters Crossing Genres

Many ukiyo-e painters drew multiple genres:

Painter	Main genre	Side genres
Utamaro	Bijin-ga	Shunga, kachō-ga
Sharaku	Yakusha-e	Sumō-e
Hokusai	Meisho-e, picture handbook	Shunga, kachō-ga, musha-e
Hiroshige	Meisho-e	Kachō-ga, musha-e
Kuniyoshi	Musha-e, giga	Yōkai-e, bijin-ga, shunga
Yoshitoshi	Musha-e, yōkai-e	Bijin-ga, historical painting

Hokusai is the most multi-genre, producing all 7 great genres in his life. This is the ground for the evaluation of Hokusai as an “all-purpose painter.”

Relationship of Genres and Publishers

Each genre had a main publisher:

• Bijin-ga — Tsutaya Jūzaburō (Utamaro), Hōeidō (also Hiroshige’s bijin-ga)
• Yakusha-e — Tsutaya (Sharaku), publishers of the theater town
• Musha-e — Kagaya (Kuniyoshi), Sagamiya (Yoshitoshi)
• Meisho-e — Hōeidō (Hiroshige), Nishimuraya (Hokusai)
• Kachō-ga — small publishers here and there
• Shunga — anonymous, various publishers
• Yōkai-e — Tsutaya, Fujiokaya, Gusokuya

Publishers had specialties by genre, and organized painters. Close to modern publishing houses’ brands by genre.

Inheritance to Today — by Genre

What each genre of ukiyo-e connects to today:

Genre	Direct modern successor
Bijin-ga	Japanese-style bijin-ga, anime bishōjo, fashion photography
Yakusha-e	Movie/drama posters, idol goods
Musha-e	Shōnen manga, Sengoku games, period dramas
Meisho-e	Tourism posters, postcards, calendars
Kachō-ga	Modern Japanese-style painting, painting works
Shunga	(Adult expression in general)
Yōkai-e	Horror manga, anime, games

Ukiyo-e anticipates almost all of modern Japan’s visual culture by subject. This is why “ukiyo-e is the manga and anime of Edo.”

Historical Changes of Scholarly Genre Classification

The genre classification of ukiyo-e has also changed in scholarship:

Edo Era (Contemporary)

• Classified by technique and format: “ezōshi, nishiki-e, ōkubi-e,” etc.
• The genre names were not clear

Meiji-Shōwa (1900-1970)

• The 7-genre classification is established
• Especially clear in the European scholarly world

Today (After 2000)

• Media-theory approach — ukiyo-e as “the mass media of Edo”
• Gender studies — re-examination of shunga and bijin-ga
• International comparison — ukiyo-e within Japonisme and world art history

Today’s scholarship analyzes ukiyo-e from viewpoints the Edo-era painters did not consciously have.

From This Article to the Next

We have exhaustively covered the painters, works, and genres of 400 years of ukiyo-e. In the last one article, we trace the shock ukiyo-e delivered to late-19th-century Europe, the full picture of Japonisme. How the great masters of impressionism and post-impressionism — Van Gogh, Monet, Degas, Toulouse-Lautrec, Klimt — learned from ukiyo-e, and how 20th-century Japan’s global success of manga and anime connects to Japonisme — the final article deals with ukiyo-e’s world-historical significance.